The Use and Reuse of Stone Circles Read online

  The capping of worked quartz

  The three features just described were covered by a thin layer of unburnt boulders which were smaller than those used to fill the court. It was sealed by a continuous scatter of broken quartz (Fig. 2.26). Most of it was white, but a small proportion was pink in colour, perhaps reflecting the relative frequency of these types on the hillside. Its quantity decreased with depth, but this deposit extended across the whole of the interior of the monument. On the other hand, it was uncommon on top of the bank. It was the latest deposit at Hillhead, and parts of it had been brought to the surface in the course of tree planting. For that reason it was excavated in its entirety. When the finds were recorded on a two-metre grid it soon became clear that their density increased steadily towards the centre of the monument and the southwest. There were 12,250 pieces in all but only five worked flints in the same context. Unworked quartz is ubiquitous around the monument but many of these fragments had been deliberately fractured. Since they overlay the remains of the pyre the radiocarbon date for the cremated bone from that feature provides a terminus post quem of 1214–1005 BC for this deposit.

  Figure 2.25. To the left is the area of heat-affected subsoil in Trench 1 interpreted as the position of a pyre, and to the right is a slab-lined hearth or fireplace which contained a dense deposit of charcoal (Richard Bradley).

  Dating evidence

  The earliest dates from Hillhead are between 2460 and 2200 BC and probably predate the building of the monument (for greater clarity the dates quoted in this section have been rounded to the nearest decade). The material of the ring cairn had been placed directly on the old land surface. Samples from this level on the south-west perimeter of the monument provided dates of 2290–1980 BC, but those in the north-east section must be intrusive. A tiny sherd in the same fabric as the Beaker pottery found in fieldwalking also came from this level in Trench 1. There is little to show when the original structure was capped with glacial boulders, but charcoal samples from the surface of the court beside the inner kerb provide a terminus post quem for that phase. There were also samples of charcoal and cremated bone from the features cut through the centre of the monument. In this case they provide a terminus ante quem of 1500–1300 BC for the filling of the court and a terminus post quem of 1210–1000 BC for the layer of quartz which covers the interior of the ring cairn.

  Figure 2.26. The density of broken quartz inside the monument at Hillhead. Unstratified material is not included.

  Radiocarbon dates

  There are 12 radiocarbon dates from the excavation, all of them funded by Aberdeenshire Council. Eleven are on single pieces of charcoal belonging to short-lived species. They came from: the old land surface beneath the ring cairn on the north-east and south-west sides of the monument; the surface of the court at the foot of the inner kerb in Trench 4; and a pebble-lined feature in the centre of the monument which had been excavated through the filling of the court. There is also a date for a sample of cremated bone from the secondary feature interpreted as the remains of a pyre.

  The surface of the old land surface on the south-west side of the monument (Context 3):

  SUERC-53890 Corylus charcoal. 3728±35 BP/2275–2027 BC at 95.4% probability

  SUERC-53891 Corylus charcoal. 3723±35 BP/2273–2024 BC at 95.4% probability

  SUERC-53892 Corylus charcoal. 3753±35 BP/2287–2037 BC at 95.4% probability

  SUERC-53893 Corylus charcoal. 3696±35 BP/2200–1977 BC at 95.4% probability

  SUERC-53894 Salix/Populus charcoal. 3855±35 BP/2461–2207 BC at 95.4% probability

  The surface of the old land surface on the north-east side of the monument (below Context 3):

  SUERC-53899 Alnus charcoal. 1209±35 BP/AD 690–938 at 95.4% probability

  SUERC-53900 Alnus charcoal. 1180±35 BP/AD 725–967 at 95.4% probability

  The surface of the court below the secondary filling (Context 2) in Trench 4:

  SUERC-53901 Corylus charcoal. 3982±35 BP/2581–2350 BC at 95.4% probability

  SUERC-53902 Corylus charcoal. 3955±35 BP/2572–2342 BC at 95.4% probability

  SUERC-53903 Corylus charcoal. 3935±35 BP/2565–2299 BC at 95.4% probability

  Secondary fireplace or hearth in the centre of the monument:

  SUERC-53895 Alnus charcoal. 31415±35 BP/1499–1302 BC at 95.4% probability

  Secondary cremation pyre in the centre of the monument:

  SUERC-53904 Human bone. 2909±35 BP/1214–1005 BC at 95.4% probability

  Finds

  Pottery

  Richard Bradley

  A single tiny sherd was found on the old land surface where the ring cairn was sectioned on the north-east side of the monument. It is of a fine fabric with a buff exterior surface. The interior surface does not survive, but the core contains small pieces of grog. It can be identified as part of a Beaker vessel, but its date and form are not known.

  The worked stone

  Richard Bradley

  FLINT

  Five pieces of worked flint were scattered over the disturbed surface of the monument. None was securely stratified. Two are chips or spalls and a third is a small fragment of a worked pebble. The only diagnostic items were a small flake scraper which had been completely worked down, and the bulbar segment of a small blade.

  QUARTZ AND QUARTZITE

  In contrast to the paucity of worked flint, pieces of smashed or flaked quartz and quartzite were very common. Because these materials occur naturally on the hillside, it is impossible to arrive at an exact figure for the number of artefacts, but their total is estimated at 12,250. A few pieces of imported pink quartz were also identified, and this is significant as it did not occur far outside the monument.

  This collection comes from four different contexts. In chronological order, they were:

  1. The old land surface beneath the ring cairn, with 70 pieces;

  2. The surface of the bank in the north-eastern sector, with about 120 fragments;

  3. A few flakes and shattered fragments of quartz from the features at the centre of the monument; and

  4. A massive deposit which covered the interior of the enclosure, increasing in density towards its centre and the south-western sector. Approximately 3050 of these had been disturbed by the plough, whilst another 9000 remained in situ and were recorded on a two-metre grid. Taken together, they were the latest deposit on the site. Since approximately half the area of the ring cairn was investigated, it seems likely that up to 25,000 fragments of quartz had originally covered the interior of the monument. The largest fragments were found at the centre and in the south-western sector of the enclosure and were as much as 15 cm in maximum dimensions. Among the smallest the equivalent figure was 3 mm.

  There was nothing to suggest the use of different methods of stone working during successive phases in the development of the monument. That may be because such limited samples were associated with the earlier deposits. The largest fragments were clearly of vein quartz, whilst most of the smaller pieces probably derived from the same source. There was only limited evidence for the use of pebbles of quartz and quartzite. These raw materials were generally of poor quality and frequently contained flaws. An estimated 5% of the collection consisted of small flakes of higher quality quartz and only 1% was imported pink quartz. They would have been more suitable for artefact production, but there was no evidence that any of them had been used.

  The larger fragments are flakes or irregular chunks with one or more removals. More regular cores were hardly represented and there was little to suggest that any of the raw materials had been systematically worked. The remaining part of the assemblage consisted of irregular chunks, mainly of quartz, and angular shatter which had been broken rather than flaked. In the large collection from the interior of the monument material of all sizes from the largest to the smallest was found together, suggesting that the stone had been fractured on the spot. Apart from two dubious candidates, none of this material had been retouched, and any hammersto
nes appear to have been removed from the site.

  It is clear that virtually all this material results from the deliberate smashing of raw material rather than tool production. That process would have caused the stone to give off sparks or even to glow, suggesting that the process was intended to create a spectacle. It is not clear whether it happened on more than one occasion, but, after it was over, the entire surface of the cairn would have glittered in strong light (as it does today). It would be wrong to consider the treatment of the raw material as a specific technology, for its aim was essentially aesthetic.

  The character of the broken material was different from the collection found in field survey outside the enclosure. This is described in a later section (p. 23). On the other hand, it did resemble the small samples of quartz and quartzite from Waulkmill, Tuach and Croftmoraig which are considered in later chapters of this book.

  Cremated bone

  Fiona Shapland

  Cremated human bone was recovered from two secondary features cut through the centre of the ring cairn, where in one case (Context 1021) evidence of in situ burning was recorded.

  Methodology

  The cremated human bone from this site was macroscopically examined in the laboratory. Recovered bone was weighed using 0.01 g digital scales. Bone colour and condition, including the extent and nature of bone fragmentation, were recorded for the information this can provide on the cremation process (McKinley 2000). All bone fragments identifiable to an area of the skeleton or specific bone were separated out for analysis.

  Age-at-death was estimated, where possible, using the criteria of dental development wear (Miles 1962), pubic symphysis deterioration (Brooks and Suchey 1990), sternal rib end deterioration (Loth and Iscan 1989), cranial suture fusion (Acsádi and Nemeskéri 1970) or the progress of epiphyseal fusion (Scheuer and Black 2000). Sex was assessed using the pelvic and cranial criteria laid out by Buikstra and Ubelaker (1994). Any visible evidence for skeletal or dental pathology was recorded. However, the fragmented nature and surface alteration of cremated material means that evidence for most pathological processes is unlikely to be recognisable (McKinley 2000, 413).

  Cremated bone from Context 1007

  The total weight of bone fragments recovered from this context was 1032.5 g, which is consistent with the cremation of a single adult (McKinley 1993, 285) but would indicate that only part of the body was represented. No clearly non-human bone fragments were identified, although the majority of fragments were too small for definite identification.

  BONE COLOUR AND CONDITION: THE CREMATION PROCESS

  The cremated human bone from this burial was predominantly white in colour with very little variation between elements. Most fragments measured less than 5 × 5 mm, and were recovered only through sieving with a 4 mm and then a 2 mm sieve. Fracture lines were curved and irregular, with considerable warping. This indicates that the body was fleshed at the time of cremation, and that a temperature of over 900°C was maintained (Walker et al. 2008, 133).

  IDENTIFIED FRAGMENTS

  The vast majority (over 97%) of bone fragments from this burial were unidentifiable due to their small size. Only 86 fragments were identified as belonging to an area of skeleton or, in a small proportion of cases, a specific bone (Table 2.1). These identified fragments provide a minimum number of individuals of one, as there were no repeated elements identified.

  EVIDENCE FOR AGE-AT-DEATH AND SEX

  Estimation of age-at-death was impeded by the fragmented and incomplete nature of the skeleton. No complete teeth were recovered, the state of the pubic symphysis and auricular surface of the pelvis were not recordable, and sternal rib ends were not observable. Where observable, cranial sutures were partially fused. The two observable epiphyses (femur and hand phalanx) were completely fused. All of these factors indicate that this individual was an adult, over 18 years of age.

  Sex assessment was problematic due to the poor survival of elements; no pelvic criteria could be recorded and only one cranial feature, the orbital margin was, identified. This was sharp and female in morphology, but this single marker does not provide strong enough evidence to assign a sex to this individual.

  PATHOLOGY

  No pathology was observable on these remains.

  Table 2.1. Identified human bone fragments from Context 1007.

  Area of skeleton No. fragments Specific bones identified

  Cranium 27 Frontal, occipital, temporal, zygomatic, mandible, 2 fragments of dental enamel

  Vertebrae 5 None

  Ribs 8 Left and right ribs

  Upper limb 12 Humerus, radius, ulna

  Hands 4 1 metacarpal, 2 proximal phalanges, 1 middle phalanx

  Pelvis 8 Ossa coxa

  Lower limb 21 Femur, tibia, patella, fibula

  Feet 1 1 proximal phalanx

  Cremated bone from Context 1021

  This feature was interpreted as the remains of a pyre. The total weight of bone fragments recovered was 736.2 g, which is smaller than would be expected from the cremation of a single adult (McKinley 1993, 285) and it seems possible that the burnt area extended outside the section investigated in 2012. No clearly non-human bone fragments were identified, although the majority of fragments were too small for definite identification.

  BONE COLOUR AND CONDITION: THE CREMATION PROCESS

  The cremated human bone from this burial was predominantly white in colour with very little variation between elements. Most fragments measured less than 4 × 4 mm, and were recovered only through sieving. Fracture lines were curved and irregular, with considerable warping. This indicates that the body was fleshed at the time of cremation, and that a temperature of over 900°C was maintained (Walker et al. 2008, 133).

  IDENTIFIED FRAGMENTS

  The vast majority (over 95%) of bone fragments from this burial were unidentifiable due to their small size. Only 73 fragments were identified as belonging to an area of skeleton or, in a very small proportion of cases, a specific bone (Table 2.2). These identified fragments provide a minimum number of individuals of one, as there were no repeated elements identified.

  EVIDENCE FOR AGE-AT-DEATH AND SEX

  Estimation of age-at-death was precluded by the fragmented and incomplete nature of the skeleton. The only evidence of any kind was a partially closed cranial suture line, which may indicate that this individual was an adult. No criteria for sex assessment were observable.

  Table 2.2. Identified human bone fragments from Context 1021.

  Area of skeleton No. fragments Specific bones identified

  Cranium 22 Frontal, temporal

  Vertebrae 3 None

  Ribs 5 None

  Upper limb 14 Radius

  Hands 1 1 proximal phalanx

  Pelvis 3 Ossa coxa

  Lower limb 25 Femur, tibia

  PATHOLOGY

  No pathology was observable on these remains.

  The surroundings of the monument

  Moyra Simon and Jane Summers

  The planting of trees had left a series of trenches cutting through the monument and the surrounding area. They were investigated in two ways. The first was to examine the site of the stone circle and the area immediately outside it on a twenty-metre grid, subdivided into 16 five-metre squares (Fig. 2.27). Beyond its limits an area of approximately 12 ha was investigated by transects at 10 m intervals. It meant that one in every five furrows was investigated. In the first stage of the fieldwork surface finds were recorded by grid square and GPS coordinates; GPS locations recorded those recovered from the transects. The work was carried out by members of NESARS and the GPS measurements were taken by Irvine Ross.

  Apart from the monument excavated in 2013, several features were recorded in the area covered by the survey. At NJ 5106 0725 there were the remains of a cairn, and a hut circle was located at NJ 5099 0707. Alder charcoal associated with this building is dated to 1030–850 BC (SUERC-56971). Other concentrations of stone require further investigation. These structures will be reported when wor
k there is complete.

  Individual artefacts may have moved when the area was planted but only one piece of worked flint came from inside the monument whilst another 15 were identified in the grid squares to the south and east of the stone circle where they occurred together with a concentration of flaked quartz. They included a barbed and tanged arrowhead found in the disturbed topsoil together with four sherds of Beaker pottery (Fig. 2.28). These artefacts were about 16 m south of the outer boundary of the monument and may be all that survive of the contents of an unmarked burial damaged during a previous campaign of forestry.

  Figure 2.27. The location of the Hillhead monument in relation to the finds of worked flint and quartz revealed by tree planting (contours at 50 m intervals).

  The surrounding area contained an extensive scatter of worked quartz which reached as far as the summit of the hill but increased in density to the south and northeast of the recumbent stone circle. It was not represented on the lower ground SSW of that monument or on the northeastern limit of the area investigated by fieldwalking. This work also revealed a group of worked flints about 140 m northeast of the principal structure. There was a concentration of worked quartz in the same area. Five other pieces of flint came from peripheral areas on the edge of the area that was investigated.